Lang Isabel¹, Bauer Theo², Powell Hannah³, Albrecht Oscar⁴, Peters Mila⁵, Davies Liam⁶
ABSTRACT:
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by amyloid-beta plaques, neurofibrillary tau tangles, and synaptic loss. Early and accurate diagnosis remains challenging, necessitating reliable biomarkers for both clinical and research settings. This review evaluates established and emerging biomarkers, including cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) measures of amyloid-beta (Aβ42/40 ratio), phosphorylated tau (p-tau), and total tau (t-tau), alongside novel blood-based biomarkers such as plasma p-tau181, neurofilament light chain (NfL), and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP). We discuss their diagnostic and prognostic utility, technological advancements in detection platforms, and the integration of multi-modal biomarkers for precision medicine. Challenges in standardization, clinical validation, and accessibility are also addressed, with a focus on future directions for biomarker-driven AD management.